The Sachsenhausen concentration camp near Oranienburg, 25 kilometres north of Berlin, Germany, was founded in the summer of 1936 as part of the restructuring of the camp system. As the first concentration camp planned by an architect, it played a key role in the concentration camp system from 1936 to 1941. Until 1945, the inmates included at least 1,000 Sinti and Roma, the vast majority of whom were men.1The research for this article was carried out as part of a research project of the Documentation and Cultural Centre of German Sinti and Roma in Heidelberg.
The Camp from 1936 to 1945
The location of the town of Oranienburg near Berlin and its good connections to the suburban rail, road and river transport, as well as an accommodating municipal administration, were decisive factors in the establishment of the camp. Sachsenhausen became the favoured destination for internees from northern Germany, Pomerania, East Prussia and most of what is now North Rhine-Westphalia.
Sachsenhausen was a new facility that surpassed the dimensions of previous concentration camps. Accordingly, prisoners from the smaller concentration camps were brought together here. The design by SS architect Bernhard Kuiper (1907–1988) envisaged a triangular structure for the part of the camp that accommodated the inmates, centred on Tower A as the central watchtower.
Until mid-1938, people were mainly interned in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp because they were political opponents or so-called ‘professional criminals’; from the beginning of the war on 1 September 1939, prisoners from the German-occupied territories were also brought in. At the same time, the inmates’ food rations were significantly reduced and abuse by SS guards was no longer limited. The resulting deterioration in living conditions led to a significant increase in mortality in the camp. From the summer of 1942, Sachsenhausen was also reorganised as a reservoir of forced labour for the armaments industry, for which purpose around one hundred satellite camps were set up throughout northern Germany.
In the final months of the war, numerous transports and death marches from other concentration camps arrived at Sachsenhausen. Within the overcrowded camp, the death toll rose, a result also of a number of mass killings. Sachsenhausen was liberated by the Soviet Red Army on 22 April 1945. One day earlier, the SS guards had driven the majority of the prisoners on a death march towards the Baltic Sea, where thousands of them were murdered. The survivors were liberated by American and Soviet troops near Schwerin in the first days of May 1945.
In total, around 200,000 people from over 40 countries were interned in Sachsenhausen between 1936 and 1945. Most of them came from German-occupied Poland and the German-occupied territories of the former Soviet Union. At least 25,000 people died in Sachsenhausen as a result of starvation, disease, violence by the SS guards or mass killings. According to estimates by the Sachsenhausen Museum and Memorial, the total number of victims was between 45,000 and 50,000.
In 1938, the Inspectorate of Concentration Camps (IKL) was relocated to Sachsenhausen under the direction of Theodor Eicke (1892–1943), the former commandant of Dachau concentration camp. The so-called T-building was erected for this purpose. At the end of the Second World War, the IKL administered 24 main concentration camps and over 1,000 satellite camps. It was in Sachsenhausen that the camp regulations with the punishments for the prisoners were issued, the prisoners’ rations were determined, forced labour was organised and mass murder campaigns such as the killing of Soviet prisoners of war in autumn 1941 were coordinated. From 1939, Sachsenhausen was an important base for the Waffen SS, in whose workshops the inmates had to perform forced labour. Thanks to its location near Berlin, Sachsenhausen was the camp most often used as a showcase for propaganda purposes.
Sinti and Roma
Some Sinti and Roma had already been interned in Sachsenhausen before June 1938. For example, there is evidence that Adolf W., who was admitted on 27 May 1937, was registered both as a ‘professional criminal’ and with the racist term ‘Gypsy’. Sinti and Roma were present as an inmate group from June 1938 until the camp was evacuated on 21 April 1945. 972 have so far been identified by name. Of these, at least 122 died in Sachsenhausen and 179 others died in other concentration camps after their internment in Sachsenhausen.
As the Schutzstaffel (SS) burned a large proportion of the documents from Sachsenhausen in April 1945, the information provided here can only be based on incomplete records. The actual number of Sinti and Roma inmates in Sachsenhausen is probably higher by several hundred.
Inmate Categories
Most Sinti and Roma were noted as ‘asocial’ or ‘workshy’ in the prisoner lists, but they were also represented in almost all inmate categories: At least 17 Sinti and Roma were interned in Sachsenhausen as ‘professional criminals’ or ‘prisoners in temporary preventive custody’. Eight were registered both as ‘Gypsies’ and as ‘protective custody prisoners’ (political prisoners). In one case, ‘labour sabotage’ was given as the reason for arrest, while two other prisoners were members of the German Communist Party (KPD).
Three Sinti or Roma also had Jewish ancestors. Eichwald Rose (1908–unknown) from Stettin was interned in the barracks for Jewish prisoners in Sachsenhausen after his arrival in June 1938. In 1947, as part of the investigations in advance of the Nuremberg Trials, he testified that he had been released in December 1940 after agreeing to be sterilised. The forced sterilisation had then been carried out in May 1941 on the instructions of Robert Ritter (1901–1951), the head of the Racial Hygiene Research Unit.2Nuremberg State Archive, KV prosecution documents (KV-Anklagedokumente), NG-552. In September 1942, Eichwald Rose was again sent to Sachsenhausen.
A second example is Josef Hertzberg (1897–1941) from Tilsit in East Prussia. He had also been sent to Sachsenhausen in 1938 and was transferred to Dachau concentration camp on 6 September 1940, where he died on 29 April 1941.3Arolsen Archives, correspondence file T/D-407943, certificate of incarceration 51311 Josef Hertzberg. In Sachsenhausen, he was also listed as an ‘asocial Jew’.
Two Romani inmates were also listed as ‘175/homo’, meaning they were persecuted not only as ‘racial aliens’, but also because of their sexual orientation.
There is an entry ‘SV/Sicherungsverwahrte’ for three men. This suggests that they had been transferred from the penal system to the concentration camp in accordance with the agreement between the Reich Minister of Justice Otto Thierack (1889–1946) and Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler (1900–1945) of 18 September 1942. Others were held as ‘deportation prisoners’ before their planned removal to actual or supposed countries of origin.
In addition, Sinti and Roma, like Jews, were sent to concentration camps under with the Nuremberg Laws if they had romantic relationships with ‘Aryan’ partners. Non-Roma partners of Sinti and Roma who refused to break off the relationship were also sent to Sachsenhausen. The political prisoner Emilio (also Emil) Büge (1890–1950), for example, reported on Willi Schröder (1904–unknown), who refused to separate from the mother of his two children after their 16 years together and was therefore sent to Sachsenhausen in December 1942.4Büge et. al., 1470 KZ-Geheimnisse, 121. His partner Sonja L. was interned in the Ravensbrück concentration camp at the same time5Arolsen Archives, Concentration Camp Ravensbrück: Inmate list KL Ravensbrück 25 November 1942, DocID 3767994. and survived. The couple were only able to marry in 1946.6Ibid., DocID: 76862457, extract from the marriage register of the municipality of Ziegenhain near Kassel.
The variety of prisoner categories shows that the persecution of Sinti and Roma in the German Reich was closely intertwined with the persecution of various other groups.
Inductions 1938
A large group of Sinti and Roma were sent to Sachsenhausen for the first time as a result of the mass arrests and internments during the ‘Aktion Arbeitsscheu Reich’ (Operation Workshy) from 14 to 23 June 1938. Depending on the region, different numbers of Sinti and Roma were arrested. Survivors report that all adult men in the Marzahn detention camp in Berlin were arrested.7Pientka, Das Zwangslager für Sinti und Roma in Berlin-Marzahn, 126–28. At least 60 Sinti and Roma from Berlin were sent to Sachsenhausen in June 1938, and a further 100 to 150 Sinti and Roma from Hamburg were forcibly interned there.8Wünsche et al., Die nationalsozialistische Verfolgung Hamburger Roma und Sinti, 45; Luchterhandt, Der Weg nach Birkenau, 108.
Many Sinti and Roma were also sent to Sachsenhausen from East Prussia, in particular from the Contiener Weg detention camp in Königsberg. Josef M. from Mönchengladbach, who was only liberated at the end of the war, recalled the transport to Sachsenhausen: ‘At twelve o’clock at night [on 21 June 1938] we all had to step out […]. There was a train, we travelled all night to Berlin-Sachsenhausen. […] We got off the train and were beaten, two dead on the spot, that was to give us a scare, and then we went into the camp, they laid somebody over the trestle,9The ‘trestle beating’ was a common method of punishment and torture in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp. An inmate was placed over a trestle and received 25 blows to the buttocks with a leather whip. An unknown number of inmates died in this way. A specimen of such a trestle can be seen in the exhibition in the former inmates’ kitchen. started thrashing him.’10Interview with Josef M. 1988, quoted from Fings et al, Rassismus. Lager. Völkermord, 102.
On 1 August 1938, 442 Sinti and Roma were among the 6,200 inmates in Sachsenhausen.11Archive of the Sachsenhausen Memorial, D 1 A/1020, sheet 323, Sachsenhausen Concentration Camp/Prisoners’ Money and Securities Administrator: notification of change, 1 August 1938. Among them were numerous young people aged 15 and over. The actual number of Sinti and Roma interned there was probably higher, as some inmates had already been released by this time. Many of the inmates had been in regular employment for years, and until the end of 1940 this meant that they could be released; 106 Sinti and Roma were released for this reason. Numerous families of those arrested tried to appeal to the Reich Criminal Police Office (RKPA) in Berlin to obtain the release of their relatives, and the RKPA threatened them with punishment to make them stop.12Cf. Luchterhandt, Der Weg nach Birkenau, 109.
At this time, Sinti and Roma were housed together with other men from the ‘asocial’ inmate group. The barracks were laid out in concentric semi-circles within the walls of the triangle, and the ‘asocials’ were housed in the third tier of barracks, near the back of the camp.
Although Sinti and Roma were mentioned in many reports by survivors from other inmates at Sachsenhausen, they were usually mentioned only in very general terms and under the racist term ‘Gypsies’. Individual Sinti or Roma were rarely mentioned by name,13Archive of the Sachsenhausen Memorial, JD 21/6, 19-31, testimony of Jadoslav Purš, 5 June 1961. and this suggests that there were only a few close contacts between them and other inmates.
There may have been various reasons for this, such as the general stigmatisation of Sinti and Roma in German society. The many Sinti and Roma who had been admitted in June 1938 were also part of the large group of inmates labelled ‘asocials’, and the political prisoners who produced the majority of the survivor memoirs generally kept their distance from ‘asocials’. One exception was the school set up in Sachsenhausen by the socialist Franz Bobzien (1906–1941), which taught German to foreign youths and taught reading and writing to young Sinti and Roma who been denied schooling on racial grounds.
Everyday Camp Life from 1939
The prisoners’ everyday lives were characterised above all by constant hunger, an uncertain future and hard forced labour. After reveille, the prisoners had half an hour to make their bunks, which they often had to share in twos or threes, visit the overcrowded toilets and eat a piece of bread and drink a cup of grain coffee. Afterwards, all the prisoners were counted in the roll call area, a process which could often take several hours.
The majority of the day, ten to 14 hours, was taken up by forced labour, during which the prisoners were closely guarded by the SS men and were often mistreated by them. At lunchtime and in the evening, they were usually only given a thin soup of potatoes and turnips. Another roll call was held in the evening. The night’s rest could also be interrupted by spontaneous ‘inspections’ by the SS men.
The overcrowded barracks with their poor hygienic conditions, mistreatment, lack of protection against accidents and the unprotected confrontation with the weather during roll calls and work led to numerous illnesses and injuries. However, medical care in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp was inadequate, and qualified prisoner doctors were only allowed to be deployed from 1942 onwards.
From 1940, weakened inmates were transferred to camps such as Mauthausen, Dachau and later Lublin-Majdanek. On 25 January 1940, a transport of over 1,000 prisoners, including 48 Sinti and Roma, was organised to Mauthausen.14Ibid., D 10 A/01, Mauthausen concentration camp: Arrivals from Sachsenhausen concentration camp on 25 January 1940. After four months, over 440 of them had died, including 15 Sinti and Roma. In addition, selections were carried out in the infirmary from 1941. Prisoners deemed no longer fit for work were murdered in the gas chambers of the Pirna-Sonnenstein killing centre in 1941/42 as part of ‘Aktion 14f13’ (Operation 14f13),15Ley, “Krankenmord im Konzentrationslager: Die ‘Aktion 14f13’.” and these included at least four Sinti and Roma. The SS guards also carried out mass killings, the largest of which was the shooting of 10,000 Soviet prisoners of war in autumn 1941. As almost no names of those victims have survived, it is not possible to determine whether they included Roma who had previously served in the Red Army.
Over 20 different series of medical experiments were carried out on the prisoners in the infirmary barracks of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp. In the summer of 1942, Prof. Dr Werner Fischer (1895–1945), a serologist at the Robert Koch Institute in Berlin, proposed tests on around 40 Sinti and Roma to prove that people’s ‘race’ could be identified through blood analysis.16Ohm et al., Die Zentrale des KZ-Terrors, 223–24; Kaienburg, Das Konzentrationslager Sachsenhausen 1936–1945, 372. In July 1942, the progress of the investigations was reported and it was also stated that the blood of Jews, too, was to be analysed in the near future.
In addition to arbitrary abuse in the form of beatings, kicks and dog bites, the SS guards used violence that was authorised by the camp regulations. This included whipping on the ‘trestle’, which caused permanent damage to some Sinti and Roma. Inmates who were particularly hated by the SS were housed in the ‘isolation’, a cordoned-off area with several barracks. These included the male members of the Atsch and Pasquali families of performers, who had been involved in a brawl with an SS man in 1939. At least three members of these families were murdered by the SS in Sachsenhausen after weeks of torture.17Morsch, Mord und Massenmord im Konzentrationslager Sachsenhausen, 85–91.
Increase in Arrests
The regulations against Sinti and Roma, which had been tightened since the beginning of the war—such as the Immobilisation Decree, compulsory labour and relationship bans—also had an impact in Sachsenhausen: until 1943, hundreds of German Sinti and Roma were committed to the camp individually and in small groups. According to Karl Pasquali’s (1922–1999) memoirs, around 500 Sinti and Roma were housed together in barracks 54 and 55 from 1940 to 1942,18Pasini et al., „Karl Pasquali (1922–1999)“. further restricting their contact with other inmates.
On the other hand, Sinti and Roma came into contact with friends and relatives and thus had the opportunity to support each other. In these barracks, the Sinti and Roma were often torn from their sleep at night and doused with cold water by SS men in the washrooms, causing many to die of heart attacks. Karl Pasquali speaks of at least 40 to 50 deaths; so far, 14 of those murders can be proven because the victims have been identified by name.19Oranienburg registry office, death register. Entries 1940–42.
Forced Labour
Until 1940, Sinti and Roma were mainly used for forced labour in the ‘Klinkerwerk’ work detail. Initially, they had to build a large brick factory, which was rebuilt several times because of planning errors. Once the factory, was completed the camp inmates were to produce the bricks needed to transform Berlin into the ‘world capital Germania’. This forced labour was characterised by hard physical work, an intense work rhythm, severe abuse by the SS guards and the accidents they caused. At least one Sinto was shot in the ‘Klinkerwerk’ while trying to escape.
From 1940, Sinti and Roma were increasingly assigned to other work details and, from 1942, to other barracks. One particularly dangerous assignment, in which mainly Sinti and Roma from Berlin were deployed, was clearing and defusing unexploded bombs after Allied air raids. Eight Sinti from Berlin who were involved were released in December 1940 as a reward for their efforts.20Pientka, Das Zwangslager für Sinti und Roma in Berlin-Marzahn, 130–31. After that, prisoners from Sachsenhausen had to carry out this work without any prospect of liberation.
Several Sinti from Berlin were deployed in the camp fire brigade, one of them as a group leader. This is the only known case of a Sinto or Roma in a privileged prisoner position in Sachsenhausen; he also used this position to help other Sinti. Several Sinti and Roma were also assigned to the camp orchestra of Sachsenhausen and its satellite camps.
Fritz Winter (1924–2014) from Berlin, who lived as a professional musician in Essen after the war, recalled how he had to play music as a member of the camp orchestra at Tower A: ‘When I was ordered to join the camp orchestra in Sachsenhausen, my bleak situation improved a little. An orchestra in this hell was one of the SS’s outlandish ideas. We stood at the camp gate and had to play cheerful tunes while the work details passed us by apathetically. In the evening we stood there again. As some members of the orchestra received parcels from their relatives and shared the contents with those who came away empty-handed, I occasionally got something.’21Quoted from Schmidt, Lichter in der Finsternis, 242–48.
At least 40 of the Sinti and Roma interned in Sachsenhausen were forced to work at the Heinkel aircraft plant in Oranienburg. Sinti and Roma were also forced to work in the main camp on a shoe testing track built at the initiative of the private shoe industry.
Waldemar Braun (1919–2004) from Marburg was sent to this work detail after an escape attempt that almost led to his execution. He reported: ‘I was sent to a punishment detail, the so-called “shoemaker detail”. Every day we had to walk for kilometres over different surfaces, over gravel and through water. This was to “test” the durability of shoe soles, heels, iron fittings and stockings.’22Quoted from Engbring-Romang, Marburg. Auschwitz, 98. Braun was exposed to the rigours of this work for nine months, interrupted only by a one-month stay in the infirmary.23Archive of the Sachsenhausen Memorial, D 25 A/7, Sachsenhausen concentration camp/camp commandant: Induction into the SK/shoe runner detail, 18 May 1944.
Nationalities
Sinti and Roma from other European countries were also sent to Sachsenhausen. In January 1943, 65 French Sinti and Roma were deported from an internment camp near Poitiers (Route de Limoges); only a few of them survived. The prefecture of Viennes had selected the men, aged between 16 and 60, so that the ‘good citizens of Poitiers’ (les bons Poitevins) would not be sent to Germany as forced labourers. When the German authorities realised that these were not the requested skilled workers, but Sinti and Roma, they were transferred to Sachsenhausen. This was a unique procedure in the history of the German occupation of France: Sinti and Roma were mostly interned in forced labour camps or placed under Enforced Residence (Assignation à résidence) there but were not systematically deported to German concentration camps.24Filhol et al., Les Tsiganes en France, 267–80.
Sinti and Roma from the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, German-occupied Poland, annexed Austria and areas of occupied Yugoslavia were also interned in Sachsenhausen. At the end of 1944, numerous Roma were arrested in Hungary and deported; 26 of them were sent to Sachsenhausen via Dachau concentration camp in February 1945.
Women
Sachsenhausen was a men-only camp until the end of 1944. Some satellite camps of the Ravensbrück women’s concentration camp were then organisationally subordinated to Sachsenhausen. These included the Arado Wittenberg satellite camp, where around 30 German, Polish and Czech Sinti and Roma were forced to work in aircraft production. Four Sinti and Roma were also temporarily interned in the women’s camp within the Sachsenhausen main camp.
During the massive Allied air raids in the final months of the war, some Sinti and Roma managed to escape, for example from the Klinkerwerk satellite camp and from Arado Wittenberg, where the Sinti woman Zilli Schmidt, née Reichmann (1924–2022) managed to escape with the help of a German civilian labourer. Others escaped on one of the death marches.
The End of the War
When the mass of German Sinti and Roma were deported to the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration and extermination camp in March 1943, those held in Sachsenhausen remained in the camp. In Birkenau, those who had served in the German Wehrmacht were interned with their families in separate barracks and—if they survived until then—transported to Ravensbrück in August 1944. Many of them were forcibly sterilised there. On 3 March 1945, at least 183 men and boys from this group were transferred to Sachsenhausen.25Calculations by Tobias Metzner based on the prisoner number register (Nummernbuch) of the men‘s camp at the Ravensbrück concentration camp, preserved in the Arolsen Archives, see https://collections.arolsen-archives.org/de/archive/1-1-35-1_2492000 [accessed: 06/05/2025].
On 15 April, around 170 of them were dressed in the uniforms of the SS special unit Dirlewanger and sent under guard to the front on the Neisse, where many of them died. Others defected to the Red Army or fled. In some cases, Sinti and Roma were held as Soviet prisoners of war for years after the end of the war.
On 21 April 1945, as the Soviet army approached, the Sachsenhausen concentration camp was evacuated and the inmates were driven on a death march towards the Baltic Sea. The Sinti and Roma still in the camp, including sons of the men drafted into the SS Special Unit Dirlewanger, were among them. At least one older Sinto was shot there by SS men because he could no longer keep up the pace of the march.26Hamburg State Archive, Police Authority II, 1282, Rosenberg family file, 33.1-II.
After 1945
Many survivors initially needed a few weeks of medical care before they were able to travel at all. One of them was 11-year-old Hermann ‘Mano’ Höllenreiner (born 1933), who lost his memory for a while as a result of his traumatic experiences. Liberated French women took the boy into their care. He lived in France for two years until his family found him again through the Red Cross.
Many survivors received official support as victims of National Socialism in the first years after the war, but from 1948 onwards everyday life in East and West Germany was increasingly characterised by racist practices towards Sinti and Roma, and this ultimately led to less favourable treatment in terms of compensation. For the survivors of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, it was difficult to gain formal recognition as victims of Nazi persecution because the Soviet secret service had confiscated the surviving inmate lists in 1945 and periods of internment could not be documented. These lists were only available in Germany in the form of copies from the 1990s onwards.
The Sachsenhausen Memorial
Sachsenhausen was located in the Soviet Occupied Zone (SBZ) of Germany and was operated until 1950 as a Soviet special camp for the internment of former National Socialists and as a place of repression against residents of the SBZ.
The site then stood empty until 1961. The barracks were used as building material and demolished in the process. The ‘National Memorial’ of the German Democratic Republic, which was finally established in 1961, focused on the communist inmates of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp. Sinti and Roma were only mentioned once, briefly, in the exhibitions.
It was not until the political upheavals from 1990 onwards that the first memorial plaque for Sinti and Roma victims was erected at the former pathology department. In 2004, an exhibition on Sinti and Roma in Sachsenhausen opened in the former infirmary. Among other things, the exhibition focuses on the ‘racial evaluation’ of 400 Sinti and Roma interned in Sachsenhausen, which was carried out in December 1939 by Eva Justin (1909–1966), an employee of the Racial Hygiene Research Unit. It also features 20 biographies of Sinti and Roma, eight of which are presented with their own steles.
In accordance with the decentralised exhibition concept introduced in the 2000s, Sinti and Roma are mentioned in several of the 13 exhibitions at the memorial: Walter ‘Stanoski’ Winter (1919–2012) is presented in Barrack 39 on the everyday life of the inmates together with an audio track with excerpts from his eyewitness account, while the stories of the Atsch brothers are told in the open-air exhibition on murder and mass killing in Sachsenhausen and that of Michael R. from Cologne in the overview exhibition in the former inmates’ kitchen.
The forced sterilisation of a Sinto who was born in 1918 and died in Sachsenhausen in 1943, which took place in May 1941 with the involvement of the camp doctor Dr Richard Krieger (1876–1960), is the subject of the exhibition on medical crimes in Sachsenhausen.
Research, Education and Remembrance
Research on the Sinti and Roma victims began relatively late. The biographies of the Sinti and Roma in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp need to be supplemented by further research in various archives—especially in the former Pomerania and East Prussia—and the analysis of compensation files in German state archives, as well as in co-operation with family members.
The practice by which Sinti and Roma were sent to Sachsenhausen up to 1938 seems to have been very different between localities, and this calls for explanation. Further insights may be expected from new research into the larger inmate group of ‘asocials’, to which Sinti and Roma were often assigned, since they have yet to be comprehensively investigated. The background to the persecution of the Polish, Hungarian and possibly also Yugoslavian Roma who were deported to Sachsenhausen should also be further clarified.
Since 2002, the persecution and murder of the Sinti and Roma has been commemorated at the Sachsenhausen Memorial and Museum every year around 16 December to mark the anniversary of the ‘Auschwitz Decree’. As part of the current educational work on site, a three-hour themed tour is offered on Sinti and Roma inmates in Sachsenhausen. Since 2014, it has also been possible to book a six-hour workshop on Sinti and Roma in Sachsenhausen. Biographies of Sinti and Roma are part of other workshops offered by the memorial. Since 2020, various programmes have been carried out together with descendants of former inmates; descendants can also book a tour and, if desired, a visit to the archive in advance.
In 2024, the exhibition in the former infirmary was revised as the result of a critical intervention in which members of the Sinti and Roma communities were involved. Among other things, the intervention addressed antigypsyist stereotypes, the fact that many of the photographs and facial moulds in the exhibition were taken under conditions of violence and coercion, and the civil rights movement from the 1980s onwards.27Anders: ‘Wir intervenieren!’ See also https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V5LCIWqjYv8 [accessed: 01/06/2025].
